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There is a recent resurgence in seabed mining, particularly in the potential excavation of polymetallic nodules (PMN) for cobalt, nickel, and copper in response to the tight competition for critical minerals between the United States and China. From the 1970s to the 1980s, increased government funding in the seabed mining industry sparked a surge of academic research and international collaboration in deep-ocean exploration. Although not the sole driver of this ballooning interest, Project Azorian—the CIA’s audacious mission aboard the Glomar Explorer to recover the sunken Soviet nuclear submarine K-129—was undeniably catalytic in generating enthusiasm. Purportedly constructed by the aviation mogul Howard Hughes Jr., and conducted under the high-profile guise of commercial seabed mining, the operation propelled the field into the global spotlight. However, after Project Azorian was shut down (sometime between the 1970s and 1980s, as much of the project remains classified), the field, coincidentally, also lay dormant for the next 30 years.

As in the past, nations seek these minerals for national security purposes, such as superalloys for use in specialized steel and military technology development. The difference today lies in the soaring consumer demand for modern amenities powered by lithium-ion batteries that require critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel: electric vehicles (EVs) (e.g., cars, scooters, boats), small electronics (e.g., smartphones and laptops), robotics, home appliances, medical devices, and others. Although the appetite for these minerals is ravenous and the ocean floor holds the natural resources to fulfill the demand (120 million to 1 billion tons of PMNs are estimated to be at the bottom of the seafloor), seabed mining still faces an uphill battle to open a viable and profitable industry. This paper will outline several obstacles impeding the growth of this sector and will provide policy considerations for the United States Government (USG) to adopt that ensure marine research remains a top priority for U.S. security interests.

Publication Date

6-9-2025

Keywords

seabed mining, critical minerals, cobalt, oceanography, national security, international seabed authority, polymetallic nodules, supply chain, glomar explorer, Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Resources Act

DOI

https://doi.org/10.5038/SDAA2693

Race to the Bottom: Is Seabed Mining Worth the Cost?

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