Monteverde Institute: Tropical Ecology and Conservation

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  Phenology and phoretic bat mites of Calyptrogyne brachystachys (Arecaceae) flowers in the Monteverde Cloud Forest, November 2005

  Dylan J. Rhea-Fournier

  In November 2005 Calyptrogyne brachystachys palm inflorescences were examined for the presence of phoretic bat mites (tribe Melichari) in the Cloud Forest of Monteverde. Sixty-seven Calyptrogyne brachystachys plants were studied over a two-week period for flower and inflorescence phenology. Forty-six inflorescences were examined thoroughly for mite presence of which 11 were found to harbor mites. Flower phenology studies suggest a temporary flowering lag. Abundances of mites on both inflorescence and site scales were found at much lower frequencies than the Atlantic slope (Tschapka and Cunningham 2004), The lower abundance in Monteverde is attributed to abiotic differences such as recent weather patterns and biotic influences such as low flower abundance.

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  Seed predation on Persea americana by Dasyprocta punctata in Monteverde, Costa Rica, November 2005

  Gregory Paul Burkard Jr.

  Dasyprocta punctata (Rodentia: Dasyproctidae), a scatter-hoarding rodent, plays an important role in seedling recruitment and tropical forest composition. (Herrera and Pellmyr 2002) The purpose of this study was to see if D. punctata maximizes its fitness by behaving as a density-dependent forager, and if the scatter-hoarding caching behavior of D. punctata is aiding the fitness of Persea americana (Lauraceae). P. americana seeds were presented to D. punctata in three distinct densities at the Santuario Ecológico in Cerro Plano, Costa Rica to observe individual seed fate. No significant difference was found for the fates of P. americana seeds between the three densities (p = 0.8651, Chi–square = 0.2900, df = 2). However, more seeds were cached than eaten, partially eaten, or untouched (Two-way ANOVA, p = 0.0002, < 0.0001, < 0.0001, respectively, df = 3). This study gives evidence that D. punctata is a density-independent forager, possibly due to seed satiation (overabundance of seeds), which aids the fitness of P. americana via caching.

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  Selective bromeliad foraging in Cebus capucinus along a tropical premontane wet forest edge, November 2005

  Vanessa Machen

  Herbivores of the Neotropics are generally highly selective in their foraging behavior. Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae), an omnivore, has been observed tearing apart and chewing on the leaves of bromeliads in the Upper San Luis valley, Costa Rica. This study examines the use of bromeliads by Cebus capucinus. Specifically, I consider the role of plant size, leaf water content and toughness in determining which bromeliads and which leaves C. capucinus selects. Comparing intact to torn bromeliads based on size, this study determined that C. capucinus selects small- and medium-sized plants. Leaves in the intermediate position of the rosette were also found to be favored. Using a penetrometer and a dry weight test, these leaves were shown to have the highest water content and intermediate toughness. Results indicate that leaf water content plays the most influential role in selection. It appears that bromeliads act as important water sources for C. capucinus in the canopy. Bromeliads may actually provide a big proportion of this species’ water needs, diminishing the need to descend the trees to retrieve water. The finding that C. capucinus is able to consistently forage for leaves with high water content may also confer this species a greater ability to survive in human-impacted habitats; an important skill to have in the changing face of land use in the world today.

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  Spatial distribution, nectar production, and pollinator visitation in Habenaria monorrhiza (Orchidaceae), November 2005

  M. L. Tsupros

  This study examines the effect of patchy distribution on the production and concentration of nectar of Habenaria monorrhiza at Monteverde, Costa Rica. Sixty patches of H. monorrhiza were identified; patch size ranged from one to six individuals. One group of patches (N=24) was covered to prevent pollination and was examined for the amount and concentration of nectar. Another group of patches (N=36) was left uncovered and was tested to determine the effect of patch size on visitation rates of pollinators. There was no significant effect of patch size on the amount or concentration of nectar produced (F = 1.3039; p = 0.2568; df total = 35). However, increasing patch size significantly increased the percent of pollinia removed on a plant (F = 45.1034; p < 0.0001; df total = 35). Furthermore, many flowering plants depend on the nectar production of their neighbor to attract pollinators, but H. monorrhiza was proven in this study not to regulate the amount or concentration of nectar. It does, however, depend on its large patch size to increase visitation by its moth pollinator.

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  Terrestrial macroinvertebrate fauna under logs in primary and secondary forest, November 2005

  Erica Hoaglund

  Terrestrial macroinvertebrates are an important yet understudied group. They are present in all types of tropical forests and, due to their services as decomposers, are essential for the maintenance of a productive system. The purpose of this study was to determine if there were significant differences in diversity and community composition between macroinvertebrate communities in the primary versus secondary lower montane wet forest of Monteverde, Costa Rica. Macroinvertebrates were collected from under 20 logs in primary and 20 logs in secondary forest. Primary forest had a higher diversity of macroinvertebrates (H’ = 2.5) than secondary forest (H’ = 2.05). Primary forest also showed greater evenness (0.84) than secondary forest (0.76). It was also found that primary forest had greater Order richness, 20 Orders among 20 logs versus 15 Orders among 20 logs in secondary forest. Secondary forest showed a greater abundance (145 individuals) than primary forest (105 individuals). These results were consistent with various studies done on aquatic macroinvertebrates and were probably due to differences in plant communities between primary and secondary forest.

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  The incidence and management of footrot in dairy cattle in Monteverde, Costa Rica, November 2005

  Allison Brown

  This study investigates the frequency of, and factors leading to or preventing, footrot in diary cattle in the Monteverde area of Costa Rica. Owners of 23 farms were interviewed about their property characteristics, management practices, and incidence of footrot. Then the farms were visually inspected. Ten farms were found to currently have infected cattle and 18 had infected cattle this year. The percent of currently infected cattle had a significant positive correlation with both herd size and hours spent in daily milking rotation. Larger herds showed a greater incidence of infection. The combined presence of rocks and mud in the trails and pastures was significantly associated with an increased occurrence of infection. However, neither rocks nor mud by themselves led to infection, suggesting that the combined effects of mud (soften hooves and make vulnerable) and rocks (cause abrasions) that allow the infectious bacteria to gain entry. None of the observed management practices attempted were successful in reducing the re-occurrence of infection. However, two management practices (adding supplements to the cattle diet and applying phosphorous to the pastures) were significantly associated with the occurrence of infection, most likely because the farmers added these practices to manage the existing problem, but occurrence of infection was unaffected after the change. This study demonstrates that many of the primary management practices recommended by previous studies to control the occurrence of footrot are not effective in Monteverde, Costa Rica. Further research is necessary to find simple and cost effective alternative management methods for small dairy farms in developing countries.

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  The role of primary forest on tropical avian communities in a mixed agricultural landscape, November 2005

  Matt Warner

  The conversion of tropical forest to agricultural systems is both widespread and increasing. As a result, much of tropical biodiversity may depend on altered landscapes for their long-term survival. The purpose of this study was to compare the avifauna of dairy cattle pastures and forested coffee plantations to assess their capacity to maintain avian biodiversity in San Luis, Costa Rica. Bird assemblages were examined for three sites of each landscape type along a distance gradient (100m, 250m, and 500m) from primary forest. Bird diversity decreased significantly with distance from forest in both landscapes (between 100m and 250m; pasture: t = 9.58, df = 210.55, P < 0.05; coffee: t = 8.04, df = 353.28, P < 0.05). At 250m and 500m, coffee sites were significantly more diverse than pasture sites (t = 2.30, df = 290.08, P < 0.05, and t = 2.57, df = 141.77, P < 0.05, respectively). Relative abundance of forest-habitat species decreased in both landscapes, but the reduction was only significant for pastures (between 100m and 250m; pasture: X¬¬2 = 13.807, df = 1, P < 0.05; coffee: X¬¬2 = 0.647, df = 1, P > 0.05). Moreover, pasture sites at 250m and 500m had significantly higher percentages of habitat-generalists and open-habitat species than corresponding coffee sites (250m: X¬¬2 = 14.313, df = 1. P < 0.05; 500m: X¬¬2 = 4.609, df = 1, P < 0.05). These findings suggest that forested coffee farms may serve to better maintain native biodiversity than pastureland after habitat transformation. Nevertheless, distance from forest is the key factor in the maintenance of bird communities in human-dominated landscapes, as short distances from primary forest (~250m) are responsible for large decreases in avian diversity. Incorporation of conservation areas in the expanding array of agricultural landscapes is necessary to best maintain native diversity in converted landscapes.

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  The role of size and defensive compounds in mate choice by Nyssodesmus python (Polydesmida: Platyrhacidae), November 2005

  Mercedes Burns

  Large mates are preferred in a variety of species, presumably because larger size typically confers greater fitness. In chemically protected species, mates may prefer more toxic partners for the same reason. The common forest millipede Nyssodesmus python displays sexual dimorphism in body size and also produces a defensive compound containing hydrogen cyanide, making it an organism well suited to an experiment on mate preferences highlighting both size and presence of defense compounds. Here, 32 mate choice experiments showed a statistically significant preference between both sexes for larger mates; however, preference for mates with differing hydrogen cyanide ranks (based on a modification of the Grignard Sodium Picrate Test [Seigler 1991]) was not significant. Results suggested that mating with individuals possessing high quantities of defense compounds did not provide a significant fitness advantage. High mortality in this study may result from autotoxicity and exposure to unusually high amounts of ambient hydrogen cyanide during measurement of relative hydrogen cyanide levels. A new methodology is recommended in the future to better understand the role of chemically mediated mate choice without the hindrance of high study mortality.

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  Aquatic insect diversity and abundance in relation to dissolved oxygen content in streams in the Tilarán mountain range, August 2005

  Susan Boehm

  Aquatic invertebrates are affected by biotic as well as abiotic factors. Dissolved oxygen is one factor of water quality that has the potential to limit aquatic insect diversity in streams. Insects in the order Odonata in particular have been known to be ‘indicator species’ meaning that organisms in this order can only survive in healthy, undisturbed streams. This study compared dissolved oxygen levels and species richness as well as odonate larva abundance in ten sample sites in streams in the Tilarán mountain range. Trichoptera and Ephemeroptera were the most abundant orders in all sites and showed no relationship with dissolved oxygen level. However, the number of species was significantly positively related to dissolved oxygen. Odonata larval abundance peaked at a dissolved oxygen level of 10.3 mg/L and then decreased at higher levels. This drop off in abundance could be due to a change in substrate size, varied speed of water flow or too much turbidity in the sample site. More odonate larvae were found in streams where there was more adult activity. Relating species diversity and abundance to abiotic factors in streams is important for determining what effects pollution and disturbance are having on aquatic habitats.

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  Bee and wasp diversity and abundance along an elevational gradient, Monteverde, Costa Rica, 2005

  Mary Oppold

  Many studies of the class Insecta have shown a decrease in species richness with increasing latitude and increasing elevation. Total insect abundance also decreases with increasing altitude, while body size increases at higher elevations. Bee and wasp species diversity and richness were compared along an elevational gradient between 1,126 m and 1,706 m in tropical montane forests in Costa Rica. It was hypothesized that both species abundance and diversity would decrease with increasing elevation and that body size would increase with elevation. No significant difference in species diversity was found along theelevational gradient, although the similarity in species composition between each transect was relatively low. Significant differences in abundances were found between the three elevations tested. Bee and wasp abundance was significantly greater at the lowest elevation (1,126 m). However, there was no significant difference in abundance between the middle and highest elevations. No significant difference was found between body size at the three elevations.

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  Coleopteran diversity on an elevational gradient in Monteverde, Puntarenas, Costa Rica, 2005

  Colin Weerts

  Most insect diversity decreases with increased altitude. However, little is known about how coleopteran (beetle) diversity changes with respect to altitude in tropical habitats (Hanski and Cambefort 1991). Coleopterans were collected on the property of Estación Biológica Monteverde at three site locations at different elevations using pit-fall traps baited with mango, human scat, or soapy water. The number of individuals and number of species collected were analyzed and divided by morphology into species by comparison with the collection of the Estación Biológica. A relationship existed between the abundance of Coleoptera and the elevation at which they are found. There were no significant differences in species richness at each elevation. Eleven species of coleopterans were predominantly found at one particular elevation more often than the others.

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  Colonial placement behaviors of Metabus gravidus (Araneidae), August 2005

  Kent Melchiors

  Metabus gravidus (Araneidae: Araneae) is a parasocial orb-weaving spider. It lives in the forest understory of Costa Rica along small streams. Web silk and spinning is very expensive and the web needs to be placed strategically to obtain maximum benefits. This study investigated the relationship between M. gravidus web size and the location and position of the web over the stream as well as the openness of the web. Specifically, the study asked if larger M. gravidus webs had a preferential placement, as closer to the water or oriented in a certain direction, to maximize prey capture and minimize web loss. It was assumed that larger spiders would spin larger webs and obtain the best placement among the colony. Data were collected from 141 webs and 14 colonies from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. for four days beginning the week of July 16, 2005. Studies showed that larger webs were found in more open areas. A mean vertical distance between colonies was also found, demonstrating that web placement is based on the surrounding environment. There was no significant difference between web size and vertical distance from stream or web size and orientation. Future studies should take into account the prey and predators of M. gravidus.

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  Defense mechanisms of Nyssodesmus python (Polydesmidae), August 2005

  Sheiphali Gandhi

  The purpose of this study was to examine the effects different characteristics of Nyssodesmus python had on the defense mechanisms of the organism. The defense mechanisms of N. python include: curling into a spiral and chemical defense. It was predicted that sex would not affect defense mechanisms, whereas size and level of calcification would. Populations were found in two locations: La Estación Biológica Monteverde and San Gerardo on different sides of the continental divide. One hundred and twenty millipedes were collected, 42 in Monteverde and 78 in San Gerardo. They were artificially threatened, and the time spent in a protective position and the release of toxin were recorded. The size of the individuals and level of calcification were also recorded. T-tests and chi-squared tests showed that there were significant differences in the defense mechanisms of males and females. Regression analysis showed a significant trend between size of an individual and the time it remained in the protected position, but the relationship may not be due to causation. The millipedes of different populations had some distinctive morphological and behavioral characteristics; additionally, there was a significant difference in their length of time spent in a curled position.

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  Distribution of Norops spp. in two locations in Monteverde, Costa Rica, August 2005

  Stephanie Place

  There is evidence of a drastic world-wide decline in herpetofauna populations. This trend has been documented in disappearing N. altae and N. tropidolepis populations in the highland cloud forests of Monteverde (Pounds 2000). Ultraviolet radiation, atmospheric pollution, epidemic disease, and unusual weather patterns have been suggested as possible causes of the decline (Pounds and Crump, 1994), but not enough long-term data has been collected to pinpoint a single cause. This study sought to census the current Norops spp. populations in two sites in the Monteverde area and compare those findings to previous censuses conducted by Pounds (2000) and Martin (2004). Thirty total daytime hours were spent searching a two-hectare study site at 1540 m elevation located just west of the entrance road to the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve (the original Pounds 2000 study site), and 30 total daytime hours were spent searching a two hectare study site at 1540 m elevation surrounding the Monteverde Biological Research Station (MBRS). No N. tropidolepis or N. altae were found at either site. Eight N. intermedius and two N. humilis were observed within the original Pounds 2000 study site. Four N. intermedius and 12 N. humilis were observed in the MBRS study site. This represents a significant decline in total anole populations for both study sites as compared to Martin 2004 (X2 , p < .001). These results suggest that the declining N. tropidolepis and N. altae populations have not recovered, and though N. intermedius and N. humilis have replaced them as the most abundant anole in the Monteverde region, these species may also be experiencing a population decline. Continued research is necessary to understand the forces behind herpetofauna decline and to prevent further loss.

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  Effects of forest fragmentation on stem length, age, and reproduction on an understory palm species Chamaedorea pinnatifrons (Arecaceae), August 2005

  Peter Werrell

  Forest fragmentation has been shown to decrease reproductive output for some species of dioecious plants. Chamaedorea pinnatifrons (Arecaceae) is a dioecious understory palm found in wet, tropical forests from Mexico to Bolivia. This study examined differences in ratios of fruiting to non-fruiting individuals of C. pinnatifrons in both continuous and fragmented forests in Monteverde, Puntarenas, Costa Rica, in order to examine the effects of fragmentation on the species’ reproductive ability. Three plots of continuous forests as well as three plots of fragmented forests were examined and compared. Stem length, presence of fruit, number of raceme branches, number of fruit, and number of annual rings were measured and related to ratios of fruiting to non-fruiting individuals in continuous forests versus fragmented forest. A higher ratio of fruiting to non-fruiting palms was found in continuous forest, showing lower reproductive output in fragmented areas. Other trends observed included an older population of fruiting plants in fragments and an older population of individuals in continuous forests. These trends indicate that females in fragments may be under environmental stresses that impede younger females from setting fruit. This study further supports previous studies showing decreased fitness of many plant species in forest fragments.

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  Effects of novel object versus predator presence on nectarivorous bat foraging behavior, August 2005

  Lizeth Diaz

  Bat foraging behavior has been shown to be affected by the presence of predator models near feeding sites. A previous study found significantly lower visitation at feeders with a model owl or snake next to it but no difference was found between the two predator models. In this study, foraging behavior was observed by recording bat visitations to hummingbird feeders with different treatments. The treatments consisted of a control feeder and feeders with either a shoe or a snake model nearby. Four treatment conditions were observed: control versus snake, control versus novel object, control versus control, and novel object versus snake. The novel object did not significantly affect visitation but visitation was significantly less at the feeder with the snake model.

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  Factors affecting herbivory on Daphnopsis americana (Thymelaeaceae), August 2005

  Elizabeth Hunter

  Daphnopsis americana (Thymelaeaceae) is a medium-sized tree found in Monteverde, Costa Rica, that is often completely defoliated by moth caterpillars during the beginning of the rainy season. Herbivory on this tree occurs mainly in adult trees. This study determined if herbivory was greater in open and edge habitats than in interior forest habitats. This study also determined if herbivory on adult D. americana trees was related to tree diameter and distance to nearest conspecific neighbor. Herbivory was estimated as a percentage of the total tree foliage consumed. These data were compared using simple regression and ANOVA tests. Trees found in edge and open habitats had significantly more herbivory than those in forest habitats. Some of this difference may be explained by lower conspecific densities in forest habitats. Forest fragmentation, leading to the creation of more edge habitats, may have detrimental effects on the fitness of populations of D. americana since they suffer more herbivory in these habitats.

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  Forest regeneration under Ficus tuerckheimii and Sideroxylon portoricense in former pasturelands, August 2005

  Michael Perkins

  Forest regeneration in abandoned pastures is often slower than in areas of natural disturbance. Lack of seed dispersers is often the major limiting factor. Shade trees left in pastures are potential perch sites and food sources for birds that act as seed dispersers. This study compared diversity and stem density of colonizing tree species under the crowns of Ficus tuerckheimii and Sideroxylon portoricense and compared change in diversity from a previous study measuring the same parameters at the same site. Ficus tuerckheimii had a significantly greater diversity of seedlings than Sideroxylon portoricense. For Ficus and Sideroxylon, significant negative correlation was found between stem-density and distance from the trunk of both species. Both species of trees are effective as nuclear species for seed dispersal and aid in accelerating forest regeneration.

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  Lichen succession on Cecropia spp. trunks in a lower montane wet secondary forest, August 2005

  Megan M. Smith

  Cecropia spp. are common pioneer tree species in regenerating forest ecosystems and are often covered in trunk colonizers such as lichen, moss, and vines. As the tree ages and a more mature forest closes in, the microhabitat becomes darker and wetter, thus forcing species to change along a vertical species gradient as the succession of epiphytes tends more toward vascular plants. This study looks at epiphytic succession by measuring the percent lichen cover at a constant height on the trunks of Cecropia spp. It was hypothesized that percent lichen cover would decrease as tree diameter increased. One hundred trees were surveyed and percent lichen cover was measured at breast height and crude overall lichen cover was estimated. Lichen cover was found to decrease significantly with increased diameter, supporting the hypothesis. The results from this study indicate that the microhabitat on Cecropia tree trunks changes over time, becoming less suitable to lichens.

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  Macroinvertebrate diversity in Heliconia tortuosa along an elevational gradient, August 2005

  Gina E. Rozinka

  Heliconia tortuosa bracts harbor a diverse and important trophic level on which many organisms depend for their nutritional intake. The species diversity and abundance of macroinvertebrates living in the bracts of H. tortuosa were measured along an elevational gradient in premontane wet and lower montane wet forests in Monteverde, Costa Rica. Inflorescences were collected between 1370 m and 1680 m, and the macroinvertebrate contents were identified to the level of order. The data were separated into equal one hundred meter elevational bands for analysis. There was a significant difference between the diversity of macroinvertebrates in the lower elevational band and the higher elevational band, perhaps suggesting a subtle decrease in insect diversity with elevational increase. In addition, a trend was noticed between the number of macroinvertebrates present between the lower elevational band and the middle elevational band. This may be a product of changing temperature and moisture ranges, as it falls at the division of two Holdridge life zones. This study partially supports previous studies that show that changes in elevation affect species composition.

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  An elevational comparison of coleopteran communities in a riparian forest in San Luis, Costa Rica, May 2005

  Emily Sampson

  The purpose of this study was to determine whether altitude has a measurable effect on coleopteran community diversity. Data for this analysis were collected along the Rio San Luis in Monteverde, Costa Rica. It was found that the community at lower elevations (710-740 m) had significantly higher diversity (H’ = 2.45) than the community at higher elevations (1170-1220 m) (H’ = 2.01). This difference is most likely caused by changes in microhabitat but could also be a result of variation within community sampling.

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  A test of the Hubbell Theory using protist communities in bromeliad tanks as a model system, May 2005

  Zoe Assaf

  In order to test the Hubbell Theory, the species composition and abundances of protist communities living in bromeliad tanks was assessed, as well as dispersal distance and tank diameter measured. The model system included local communities (the bromeliad tanks), 3 meta-communities (the tree) and a meta-metacommunity (the three trees with 48 bromeliads). It was hypothesized that the protist communities in the bromeliad on a given tree behave as in a Hubbell meta-community and experience community drift and zero-sum game conditions. Five predictions were used to test whether or not the Hubbell Theory fit this model system: (1) As the dispersal distance increases, the diversity indices S, H’ (Shannon-Weiner), and E (evenness) will decrease. (2) As N (the number of individuals in a community) increases, S (species richness) will increase. (3) As the bromeliad tank diameter increases, N will increase, and therefore so will the diversity indices S, H’ and E. (4) The diversity indices will steadily increase as the meta-community size increases. And (5) the Dominance-Density Curves for the three meta-communities will follow Hubbell’s predicted curves. The only prediction that the Hubbell Theory successfully described was the positive correlation between N and S, which was found for 2 of the 3 meta-communities and the metameta-community. However, this study does not conclude that the Hubbell Theory cannot fit this model system. Instead, the investigation concludes that if future studies modify the methods in the recommended ways, it can be conclusively discovered whether or not the Hubbell Theory fits this model system.

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  Behavioral transitions during metamorphosis: Skototropism’s successors, May 2005

  Oliver Kroner

  Metamorphosis in the plant family Araceae is generally considered only on a morphological basis, but clearly involves behavioral transitions as well. Many metamorphic climbing vines use skototropism as a method of host-location and then relinquish it before ascent. The reactions of eight individual Monstera to changes across vertical and horizontal light gradients were used to evaluate possible replacements for skototropism. Three possibilities were proposed: (1) climbing without preference (2) phototropism, (3) thigmotropism. Data were inconclusive, but strongly suggested the improbability of (2) and (3). Monstera encountered regions of increasing light intensity (lux) with increasing height, but did not demonstrate horizontal tendencies toward light. Monstera did show a significant preference for the southern quadrant, indicating the influence of abiotic factors.

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  Climate change and Uredinales (rust fungi) on Pleurothallid orchids in Monteverde, May 2005

  Lindsey Parsons

  The purpose of this experiment was to determine if the decrease in mist frequency observed in Monteverde, has an effect on Uredinales (rust fungi) infections in Pleurothallis aristata and Pleurothallis segoviensis orchids and to determine if the infection in P. segoviensis contributed to the rate of herbivory and number of flowers the orchid produced. In mist experiments infected samples of both species of orchids were placed in either a misted or control condition and the change in infection rates were observed over a 20-day period. Under natural conditions, number of leaves, leaves with infection, leaves with herbivory, and number of flowers were counted on samples of P. segoviensis to determine if there were any significant interactions among these factors. Results reveal that additional mist does have an effect on rust fungus infection rates; with a decrease in mist, rust fungus infection rates increased. Infection rates also cause higher rates of herbivory and lower rates of flower production. Thirty-eight species of Pleurothallid orchids were found in the short twenty-day study in the forest near the Estación Biológica de Monteverde and in the Jardín de Orquídeas. Monteverde, famous for Pleurothallid orchids is experiencing a decrease in mist frequency, which puts the orchids here in a dangerous situation when dealing with rusts.